The trade-off between equity and efficiency in population health gain: Making it real.

Two fundamental goals of health systems are to maximise overall population health gain (referred to as efficiency) and to minimise unfair health inequalities (equity). Often there is a trade-off in maximising efficiency vis a vis equity and the relative weight given to one goal over the other is acknowledged to be essentially a value judgement. Health systems necessarily make those value judgements but in making them would benefit from relevant and accurate opportunity cost information. Unfortunately the development of practical tools to measure equity-efficiency trade-offs has lagged theoretical advances in this area. We address this gap by presenting a practical technique to reveal opportunity costs of equity (and efficiency) gains in decentralised population-based health systems, applying stochastic data envelopment analysis to ethnic-specific life expectancy (LE) changes for 20 New Zealand (NZ) District Health Boards for the inter-census period 2006-2013, thereby deriving a notional health frontier from 10,000 Monte Carlo simulations. Four different ways to increase health equity emerge. These show that a trade-off between equity and efficiency does not always exist. In particular, improving both productive efficiency and allocative efficiency (up to its maximum) can also yield gains in equity through reductions in LE inequalities. However, in NZ's case, the opportunity cost (in sacrificed European life-years) of achieving gains in equity beyond the point of maximum productive and allocative efficiency is relatively high, even for quite small reductions in the LE gap between Maori and European populations. This high opportunity cost may explain why, despite governments' strong rhetorical commitment to equity, NZ's health gains have not strayed far from the path of maximising allocative efficiency. Nevertheless, this opportunity cost could be reduced significantly by measures which shift the health frontier outward, highlighting the importance of technical and organisational innovation as potential drivers of greater equity in health outcomes.

A community laboratory drop-off option for bowel screening test kits increases participation rates: results from an interrupted time series analysis.

Background: Countries with population-based colorectal cancer screening using faecal occult blood test kits performed in the home and posted to the laboratory struggle to achieve higher than 60% uptake. We measured the impact on participation of offering a community laboratory drop-off (CLD) alternative to postal return in New Zealand's Bowel Screening Pilot. Methods: From May to September, 2015, a flyer added to the bowel screening test kit offered CLD as an alternative to returning the kit by post. Participation rates for equal-length periods before and after were measured. Interrupted time series and logistic regression models measured CLD-attributable the changes in screening participation. Results: Overall, 26% of invitees used the CLD option. The effect of the CLD option on participation varied significantly by age, gender and ethnicity. There was a significant increase in participation among males (+1.75%; P = 0.002); patients under 60 (+1.65%; P = 0.006); Maori and Pacific (+2.88%; P = 0.029); and in the European/other ethnic group (+1.04%; P = 0.045) but not in Asians. Conclusions: Both analyses showed that at little or no additional cost, the CLD option produced small but significant increases in participation for non-Asian men and younger invitees. A CLD kit return option may have benefits for other bowel screening programmes.

An evidence-based system for health surveillance of occupational divers.

BACKGROUND: The value of the commonly required routine annual medical examination of occupational divers has been questioned, and there is a need for a robust, evidence-based system of health surveillance for this group of workers. AIMS: To determine whether the medical examination and investigation component of occupational divers' routine comprehensive health surveillance adds significantly to the information gained from the questionnaire component in determining fitness for diving. METHODS: An occupational diver database was interrogated to identify divers issued with a 'limited' medical clearance or considered 'unfit' for diving over a 5-year period. Reasons for the 'unfit' or 'limited' designation and the source of the critical information, whether the annual health questionnaire or the medical examination or questionnaire component (or both) of the initial or 5-yearly comprehensive medical evaluation, was recorded. For divers completing the 5-yearly repeat comprehensive medical evaluation, the sensitivity and specificity of the questionnaire alone for determining unfitness for diving was compared with that of a nominal 'gold standard'. RESULTS: Of 5178 certificates issued to 2187 divers over a 5-year period, 158 (3%) were provisionally designated as either 'limited' or 'unfit'. Of nine divers identified by the examination component of the 5-yearly comprehensive medical evaluation, four were eventually designated 'fit', two 'limited', and three were lost to follow up. None who had completed subsequent investigations remained 'unfit'. The sensitivity and specificity of the questionnaire to detect unfit divers compared with the gold standard were 84.6 and 99.3%, respectively, and its accuracy was 98.9%. CONCLUSION: The current New Zealand occupational diver medical certification process, comprising annual health questionnaires and 5-yearly full examinations, detects all health issues critical to the determination of fitness to dive.

Trends in incidence and mortality from abdominal aortic aneurysm in New Zealand.

BACKGROUND: This study examined trends in abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) incidence and mortality in New Zealand (NZ) and compared these with mortality rates from England and Wales. METHODS: Cause-specific death data were obtained from the NZ Ministry of Health, UK Office for National Statistics and National Archives (for England and Wales). The NZ National Minimum Data Set provided hospital discharge data from July 1994 to June 2009. RESULTS: In 2005-2007 the age-standardized AAA mortality rate for men was 33·3 per cent less in NZ than in England and Wales (5·21 versus 7·81 per 100 000), whereas for women it was 9·8 per cent less (2·12 versus 2·35 per 100 000). Standardized mortality rates in NZ fell by 53·0 per cent for men and 34·1 per cent for women from 1991 to 2007. Between 1991-1992 and 2005-2007 the probability of a 65-year-old dying from an AAA fell by 28·2 per cent (from 1·872 to 1·344 per cent) in men, and by 6·3 per cent (from 0·837 to 0·784 per cent) in women. New AAA admission and hospital death rates in NZ peaked in 1999 for men, and in 2001 for women, and have since declined sharply. Hospital mortality ratios have also fallen, except for women with a ruptured aneurysm. CONCLUSION: The burden of AAA disease has been falling since at least 1991 in NZ, and since 1995 in England and Wales. Although survival appears to be improving, most of the reduction is due to lower disease incidence.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia in the Bahamas due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the frequency of 21-hydroxylase deficiency in The Bahamas and the spectrum of this disorder METHODS: Patients referred for evaluation of virilization, precocious puberty, ambiguous genitalia and salt wasting had blood taken for 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OH progesterone) which was measured by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Nine patients had elevated 17-OH progesterone levels--confirming 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Range of levels was 174.9 nmol/l to 81678.7 nmol/L (normal less than 13 nmol/L). There were six females and three males and the age at diagnosis ranged from 21 days to 16 years. Five had precocious development, three had salt wasting, and there was one with virilization. One of the salt wasters had ambiguous genitalia. Incidence of 2l-hydroxylase deficiency--20/100,000; salt wasting--35/100,000; the prevalence of 21-Hydroxylase deficiency 10/100,000). CONCLUSION: The frequency of 21-Hydroxylase deficiency in The Bahamas is one of the highest worldwide.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia in The Bahamas due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency / Hiperplasia Suprarrenal Congénita en las Bahamas por Déficit de 21-Hidroxilasa

OBJECTIVE: To determine the frequency of 21-hydroxylase deficiency in The Bahamas and the spectrum of this disorder METHODS: Patients referred for evaluation of virilization, precocious puberty, ambiguous genitalia and salt wasting had blood taken for 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OH progesterone) which was measured by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Nine patients had elevated 17-OH progesterone levels--confirming 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Range of levels was 174.9 nmol/l to 81678.7 nmol/L (normal less than 13 nmol/L). There were six females and three males and the age at diagnosis ranged from 21 days to 16 years. Five had precocious development, three had salt wasting, and there was one with virilization. One of the salt wasters had ambiguous genitalia. Incidence of 2l-hydroxylase deficiency--20/100,000; salt wasting--35/100,000; the prevalence of 21-Hydroxylase deficiency 10/100,000). CONCLUSION: The frequency of 21-Hydroxylase deficiency in The Bahamas is one of the highest worldwide.

OBJETIVO: Determinar la frecuencia del déficit de 21-hidroxilasa en las Bahamas y el espectro de este problema. MÉTODOS: A los pacientes remitidos para evaluación de virilización, pubertad precoz, genitales ambiguos, y pérdida de sal, se les extrajo sangre para medir la 17-hidroxiprogesterona (17-OH progesterona) mediante un inmunoensayo enzimático (ELISA). RESULTADOS: Nueve pacientes tuvieron niveles elevados de 17-OH progesterona, confirmando el déficit de 21-hidroxilasa. El rango de niveles fue de 174.9nmol/l a 81678.7 nmol/L (normal menos de 13). Había seis hembras y tres varones, y la edad al momento del diagnóstico oscilaba entre los 21 días y los 16 años. Cinco mostraban desarrollo precoz, tres presentaban pérdida de sal, y uno exhibía virilización. Uno de los pacientes con pérdida de sal presentaba también genitales ambiguos. Incidencia del déficit de 21-hidroxilasa – 20/100 000. (Incidencia de la pérdida de sal – 35/100 000. Prevalencia del déficit de 21-hidroxilasa – 10/100 000). CONCLUSIÓN: La frecuencia del déficit de 21-hidroxilasa en las Bahamas es una de las más altas a nivel mundial.

[Health inequalities in Panama]. / Las desigualdades en salud en Panamá

OBJECTIVES: To document socioeconomic inequalities in health and health services in Panama and thus create a baseline for the prospective monitoring of the impact of health policies on equity. METHODS: Analysis of data from the 1997 Living Standards Measurement Survey, the 1990 National Population Census and birth registration data for 1996. The relative index of inequality and concentration coefficient were calculated for a wide range of indicators of out-of-pocket health expenditure, access, utilization and quality of health services and of health outcomes. RESULTS: Large and statistically significant socioeconomic differences in many of the variables examined were detected, almost all of which favored the rich. The inequalities identified included qualitative factors such as the type of care received as well as quantitative factors such as travelling times and utilization rates. Some of the inequalities were concentrated among a small, very poor segment of the population whilst others were the result of gradually increasing advantage with increased levels of outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The results obtained provide a valuable starting point for the Panamanian government from which it can identify the most serious inequalities in health and health service provision and develop policies to eliminate or reduce them. They also offer a baseline to monitor changes in the magnitude of these inequalities over time.

Las desigualdades en salud en Panamá / Health inequalities in Panama

Objetivos: Documentar las desigualdades socioeconómicas en la salud y en los servicios de la salud en Panamá, y así crear una línea de base para la monitorización prospectiva de la repercusión de las políticas sanitarias en la equidad. Métodos: Análisis de los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Vida, el Censo Nacional de 1990, y el Registro Nacional de Eventos Vitales. Se calcularon los índices de desigualdad relativa y los coeficientes de concentración para un variedad amplia de indicadores de gasto (de bolsillo) en salud, acceso, utilización y calidad de los servicios de salud, así como de la morbimortalidad de la población. Resultados: Fueron detectadas grandes y estadísticamente significativas desigualdades socioeconómicas en salud, de las cuales casi todas favorecieron a los ricos. Las desigualdades identificadas incluyeron tanto factores cualitativos, como el tipo de atención recibido, como factores cuantitativos, como los tiempos de espera y las tasas de utilización. Algunas de las desigualdades fueron concentradas en un grupo pequeño de la población, mientras otras fueron el resultado de una ventaja que aumenta progresivamente con mayor ingreso. Conclusiones: Los resultados obtenidos brindan un punto de partida valioso para el gobierno panameño, a partir de los cuales puede identificar las inequidades más grandes en los servicios de salud y desarrollar políticas de salud para eliminarlas o reducirlas. También ofrece una línea basal para monitorizar los cambios en la magnitud de estas desigualdades en el transcurso del tiempo (AU)

Beyond health gain: the range of health system benefits expressed by social groups in Mexico and Central America.

Current health reform proposals in most developing countries stress health gain as the chief evaluation criterion. Essential service packages are formulated using cost-effectiveness methods for the selection of interventions without sufficient regard for other factors that are significant for successful implementation and acceptance by the needy. This paper presents the results of research undertaken in Mexico and Central America to test the hypothesis that population groups view health gain as only one among several benefits derived from health systems. The goal at this stage was two-fold: (a) to identify through qualitative methods the range of benefits that are significant for a wide cross-section of social groups and (b) to classify such benefits in types amenable to be used in the development of instruments to measure the benefits intended and actually produced by health systems. Fourteen focus groups were undertaken in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico and Nicaragua representing diverse age, gender, occupation and social conditions. Six major types of health system benefits were identified besides health gain: reassurance/uncertainty reduction, economic security, confidence in health system quality, financial benefits derived from the system, health care process utility and health system fairness. Benefits most often mentioned can be classed under health care process utility and confidence in system quality. They also have the most consensus across social groups. Other benefits mentioned have an affinity with social conditions. Human resource-derived utility stands out by its frequency in the range of benefits mentioned. Health systems and health sector reform proposals must emphasise those aspects of quality related to human resources to be in accord with population expectations.

Hygiene behaviour in rural Nicaragua in relation to diarrhoea.

BACKGROUND: Childhood diarrhoea is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Nicaragua. Amongst the risk factors for its transmission are 'poor' hygiene practices. We investigated the effect of a large number of hygiene practices on diarrhoeal disease in children aged <2 years and validated the technique of direct observation of hygiene behaviour. METHODS: A prospective follow-up study was carried out in a rural zone of Nicaragua. From the database of a previously conducted case-control study on water and sanitation 172 families were recruited, half of which had experienced a higher than expected rate of diarrhoea in their children and the other half a lower rate. Hygiene behaviour was observed over two mornings and diarrhoea incidence was recorded with a calendar, filled out by the mother, and collected every week for 5 months. RESULTS: Of 46 'good' practices studied, 39 were associated with a lower risk of diarrhoea, five were unrelated and only for two a higher risk was observed. Washing of hands, domestic cleanliness (kitchen, living room, yard) and the use of a diaper/underclothes by the child had the strongest protective effect. Schooling (>3 years of primary school) and better economic position (possession of a radio) had a positive influence on general hygiene behaviour, education having a slightly stronger effect when a radio was present. Individual hygiene behaviour appeared to be highly variable in contrast with the consistent behaviour of the community as a whole. Feasible and appropriate indicators of hygiene behaviour were found to be domestic cleanliness and the use of a diaper or underclothes by the child. CONCLUSION: A consistent relationship between almost all hygiene practices and diarrhoea was detected, more schooling producing better hygiene behaviour. The high variability of hygiene behaviour at the individual level requires repeated observations (at least two) before and after the hygiene education in the event one wants to measure the impact of the campaign on the individual.

PIP: Poor hygiene practices are among the risk factors for the transmission of childhood diarrhea, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Nicaragua. Findings are reported from a prospective follow-up study in rural Nicaragua of the effect of a number of hygiene practices upon diarrheal disease in children under age 2 years old. 172 families, of whom half had experienced a higher than expected rate of diarrhea in their children and the other half a lower rate, participated. Hygiene behavior was observed over 2 mornings and diarrhea incidence was recorded with a calendar over the course of 5 months. Of 46 good practices studied, 39 were associated with a lower risk of diarrhea, 5 were unrelated, and a higher risk was observed for 2. The washing of hands, domestic cleanliness, and the use of a diaper/underclothes by the child had the strongest protective effect against diarrhea. Mothers with more than 3 years of primary school education and in a comparatively better economic position, including having a radio, exhibited comparatively better general hygiene behavior. Education had a slightly stronger effect when a radio was present. However, individual hygiene behavior seems to be highly variable compared to the consistent behavior of the overall community. Appropriate indicators of hygiene behavior were domestic cleanliness and the use of a diaper or underclothes by the child.

Does intelligence account for the link between maternal literacy and child survival?

The strong and consistent correlation between maternal education and child health is now well known, and numerous studies have shown that wealth and income cannot explain the link. Policy-makers have therefore assumed that the relationship is causal and explicitly advocate schooling as a child health intervention. However, there are other factors which could account for the apparent effect of maternal education on child morbidity and mortality, one of which is intelligence. This paper examines the effect of maternal intelligence on child health and looks at the degree to which it can explain the literacy associations with child survival and risk of malnutrition. The data are from a retrospective cohort study of 1294 mothers and their 7475 offspring, of whom 454 were women who had learned to read and write as adults in Nicaragua's literacy programme, 457 were illiterate, and 383 had become literate as young girls attending school. The women's intelligence was tested using Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices. Acquisition of literacy was strongly related to intelligence. Statistically significant associations with maternal literacy were found for under five mortality, infant mortality, and the risk of low mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC) for age, before and after controlling for a wide range of socio-economic factors. Under five, child (one to four years), infant and post-neonatal mortality plus the risk of low height for age were significantly correlated with intelligence, but only with infant and under mortality rates did the association remain significant after controlling for socio-economic factors. A significant interaction between intelligence and literacy for under five mortality was due to literacy having a strong effect in the women of low intelligence, and a negligible effect among those of high intelligence. This study provides evidence that intelligence is an important determinant of child health among the illiterate, and that education may have the greatest impact on child health for mothers of relatively low intelligence.

Effect of eicosanoid inhibition on the development of pulmonary edema after acute lung injury.

In experimental models of acute lung injury, cyclooxygenase inhibition improves oxygenation, presumably by causing a redistribution of blood flow away from edematous lung regions. This effect on perfusion pattern could also reduce alveolar edema formation. On the other hand, pulmonary pressures usually increase after cyclooxygenase inhibition, an effect that could exacerbate edema accumulation. Therefore we tested the following hypothesis: the total accumulation of pulmonary edema in dogs during a 24- to 28-h period of observation after acute lung injury caused by oleic acid will be less in a group of animals treated with meclofenamate (n = 6) or with the thromboxane-receptor blocker ONO-3708 (n = 5) than in a group of animals treated with oleic acid alone (placebo, n = 6). Lung water concentrations (LWC), the regional pattern of pulmonary perfusion, and protein permeability were measured with the nuclear medicine imaging technique of positron emission tomography. After 24-28 h, LWC was significantly less (P < 0.05) in the ONO-3708 group than in the meclofenamate group (a similar trend was seen compared with the placebo group, P = 0.12). After 24-28 h, pulmonary arterial pressures were highest in the meclofenamate group. Regardless of group, the only significant correlation with the change in LWC was with the integral of pulmonary pressures over the 24- to 28-h period. The data suggest that thromboxane inhibition will reduce edema accumulation in acute lung injury but that this effect depends on reducing as much as possible the simultaneous development of pulmonary hypertension from other causes.

[Childhood diarrhea in rural Nicaragua: beliefs and traditional health practices]. / Diarrea infantil en la Nicaragua rural: creencias y prácticas de salud tradicionales.

In Nicaragua, the principal cause of infant mortality is diarrhea, which is responsible for 40% of these deaths annually. This statistic reflects the low usage of health services and oral rehydration therapy (ORT). In an effort to improve the situation, several studies were carried out in Villa Carlos Fonseca municipio. This report describes two of those studies, one ethnographic and the other epidemiologic (conducted in 1989 and 1990, respectively), to find out beliefs and traditional health practices and their influence on the way in which mothers responded to their children's diarrheal illness. The ethnographic study involved interviewing 70 mothers with an average age of 28 years who had children under 2 years of age. The children represented two groups: one at high risk for diarrhea and the other at low risk. The objectives were to learn the traditional names for diarrhea, the perception of risk, and the treatments that were used. The epidemiologic study included 391 mothers over 14 years of age with one or more children under age 5 years, of whom 215 had had diarrhea in the two weeks preceding the survey. The objectives were to describe local beliefs and health practices and to determine the incidence of diarrheas according to the diagnosis made by the mothers. At least 12 types of diarrhea were identified, for which terms such as "empacho" and "sol de vista" were used. In most cases, the mothers had more confidence in folkloric treatments that they themselves or the traditional healers (curanderos) applied than in the services offered at health centers. This attitude limited their use of health services and ORT, although it was observed that in certain cases traditional treatments were used in combination with those of western medicine. There was a direct but nonsignificant correlation between the level of schooling of the mothers and the frequency with which they visited the health center. The authors suggest the effects of massages, herbal baths, and other traditional treatments should be studied to evaluate their effectiveness and adapt them, to the extent possible, to "modern" medicine. Health services providers should become familiar with traditional nomenclature and beliefs in order to be able to communicate better with mothers and steer them away from harmful practices toward improved results in infant diarrheal disease prevention programs.

Does health information alone help in equitable distribution of essential drug kits between health units at district level?

In Tanzania, the essential drugs programme (EDP) faces acute shortage of drugs brought about by a deteriorating economy and an expanding primary health care system. Many health units complain of shortages of drugs but no increase in the district allocation of EDP kits is foreseen. In the light of the aforementioned problem, a study was carried out in the Kisarawe district of Tanzania to discover, on behalf of the District Health Management Team (DHMT), the extent of the maldistribution with a view to reallocate the EDP kits among the health units on the basis of workload and catchment population. The relative workload of each health unit was estimated from the number of outpatient attendants and the catchment population estimates are based on a 1988 national census. An equitable distribution of EDP kits for each indicator was then developed by ranking the health units in order of workload and catchment population and dividing up the available number of EDP kits proportionately. Health units were categorised as either 'over-allocated', 'appropriately-allocated' or 'under-allocated' with EDP kits by comparing their actual drug supply with the equitable supply. The findings were presented to a meeting of the DHMT attended by the Regional Medical Officer and Ministry of Health officials. Despite being presented evidence of astounding inequity in drug distribution, there was a marked reluctance on the part of the DHMT to decide upon actions to redress some of the imbalance. In this study, we demonstrated that although data from the routine information system on essential drugs at peripheral health units provided sufficient information for managerial purposes, decision-making was delayed and limited. Several possible reasons for this are discussed.

A randomized trial of the impact of rope-pumps on water quality.

Rope-pumps are now widely promoted as a low cost, easily maintained means to improve water availability in developing countries. However, in some instances their acceptance has been limited by concerns over the microbiological quality of the water. This study looked at the well water quality under a variety of conditions, comparing unimproved bucket and rope wells with wells with a windlass and rope-pump wells with and without a concrete cover. Other factors influencing the water quality were also examined. Results indicate a 62% reduction of the geometric mean of the faecal coliform contamination of the well water as a result of the installation of a rope-pump with or without a concrete cover. Other factors found to influence the level of contamination of water in hand-dug wells were rainfall, number of households using the well, amount of water extracted daily and the distance of the well from the nearest kitchen. The last three factors probably reflect domestic activities with poor hygiene around the well. The installation of a simple rope-pump on family wells improves the water quality and availability at a favourable cost/benefit ratio.